We have found two factors which might complementarily contribute to the survival of bacterial cells despite the host immune system
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For instance, Bifidobacterium bifidum , a potent immunomodulator in human diseases, induces the production of regulatory T cells (Verma et al., 2018), regulates helper T cell 2 and Th17-mediated immune responses in the intestine, inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-, IL-6, IL-1, IL-18, IL-22, and IL-9, while promots the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10, IL-4, and IL-5 (Fan et al., 2021)
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